Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD)

Experiencing frightening or traumatic events can result in a wide range of difficult symptoms: some people may become very anxious, whereas others may experience depression. For the first month following a traumatic event experiences of heightened vigilance and avoidance are so common as to be almost expected. Repeated experiences of neglect or abuse have been linked with the development of a wide range of mental health conditions including anxiety and mood disorders, psychosis, and personality disorders. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one common sequelae of trauma. Patients with PTSD experience unwanted memories of the traumatic event in the form of flashbacks or nightmares, and they report higher levels of anxiety, and vigilance. Reminders of the trauma often act as triggers for intrusive memories or heightened emotion and are frequently avoided. Individuals who have experienced repeated, prolonged interpersonal trauma may develop complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) which is characterized by the symptoms of PTSD as well as alterations in attention (such as dissociation), difficulties in managing relationships, and very strong negative beliefs about the self, world, or future. Read more

See recommended resources

Recent releases

Filter

Sort by

Links to external resources

Psychology Tools makes every effort to check external links and review their content. However, we are not responsible for the quality or content of external links and cannot guarantee that these links will work all of the time.

Assessment

Brief Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-B) | Dalenberg, Carlson | 2010
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
- DES-B (Dalenberg C, Carlson E, 2010) modified for DSM-5 by C. Dalenberg and E. Carlson.

Resources related to the assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Wilson, J.P., & Keane, T.M. (Eds.). (2004). Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD: A practitioner’s handbook (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Shutdown Dissociation Scale (Shut-D) | Schauer, Schalinski, Elbert | 2015
- Scale (English)
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale (German)
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale (Norwegian)
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Reference Schalinski, I., Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2015). The Shutdown Dissociation Scale (Shut-D). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6
Dissociative Experiences Scale – II (DES-II) | Carlson, Putnam | 1993
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Carlson, E.B. & Putnam, F.W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experience Scale. Dissociation 6(1), p. 16-27.

Screening, diagnostic, and outcome-measurement tools for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ) | Brewin, Rose, Andrews, Green, Tata, McEvedy, Turner, Foa | 2002
Primary Link Archived Link
- Brewin, C. R, Rose, S., Andrews, B., Green, J., Tata, P., McEvedy, C. Turner, S, Foa, E. B. (2002). Brief screening instrument for post-traumatic stress disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181, 158-162.
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
Trauma Appraisal Questionnaire (TAQ) | DePrince, Zurbruggen, Chu, Smart | 2010
Primary Link Archived Link
- DePrince, A. P., Zurbriggen, E. L., Chu, A. T., & Smart, L. (2010). Development of the trauma appraisal questionnaire.Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma,19(3), 275-299.
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
Severity Of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms | Kilpatrick, Resnick, Friedman | 2013
- Scale – Adult
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale – Child Age 11-17
  Primary Link Archived Link
PTSD Symptom Scale – Interview Version for DSM-5 (PSS-I-5) | Foa, McLean, Zang, Zhong, Rauch, Porter, Knowles, Powers, Kauffman | 2016
Archived Link
- Foa, Edna B.,McLean, Carmen P.,Zang, Yinyin,Zhong, Jody,Rauch, Sheila,Porter, Katherine,Knowles, Kelly,Powers, Mark B.,Kauffman, Brooke Y. (2016) Psychological Assessment, Vol 28(10), 1159-1165
- Scale
  Archived Link
PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) | Weathers, Litz, Keane, Palmieri, Marz, Schnurr | 2013
Primary Link Archived Link
- Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28, 489-498. doi: 10.1002/jts.22059
- Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) – Standard. [Measurement instrument].
- Manual
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale (Standard)
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale with criterion A
  Primary Link Archived Link
- Scale with life events checklist and criterion A
  Primary Link Archived Link
Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5) | Weathers, Blake, Schnurr, Kaloupek, Marx, Keane | 2013
Primary Link Archived Link
- Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5) – Standard. [Measurement instrument].
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
Impact Of Events Scale – Revised (IES-R) | Weiss, Marmar | 1996
Primary Link Archived Link
- Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1996). The Impact of Event Scale – Revised. In J. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). New York: Guilford.
- Scale
  Primary Link Archived Link
Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) (Past week version) | Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. | 2015
Primary Link
- Scale archived version
  Primary Link
- Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2015). The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) – Past Week [Measurement instrument].

Guides and workbooks

Your very own TF-CBT workbook | Alison Hendricks, Judith A. Cohen, Anthony P. Mannarino, Esther Deblinger
Primary Link Archived Link
Posttraumatic stress disorder: patient treatment manual | Clinical Research Unit for Anxiety and Depression (CRUfAD)
Primary Link Archived Link
Trauma And Substance Use | NDARC: Mills, Ewer, Marel, Baker, Teesson, Dore, Kay-Lambkin, Manns, Trimmingham | 2011
Primary Link Archived Link
Abuse – Information For Adults Physically, Emotionally, Or Sexually Abused As Children (An NHS Self-Help Guide) | Lesley Maunder, Lorna Cameron | 2020
Primary Link Archived Link

Information Handouts

A collection of soothing activities wwu.edu
Archived Link
Grounding techniques list
Primary Link
Detaching from emotional pain e-tmf.org
Archived Link
Grounding Techniques
Archived Link
Coping with trauma | Dr Jim White | 2006
Archived Link
Was it my fault? Self-blame and survivors | PANDYS / Shannon | 2007
Archived Link
The Power and Control Wheel diagram: for understanding abusive and violent behaviors | National Centre on Domestic and Sexual Violence
Primary Link Archived Link
After the event: supporting children after a frightening event | Trickey, Bailie, Serpell | 2010
Primary Link Archived Link
Explaining the rationale for trauma focused work: why it’s good to talk (children & young people) | Trickey | 2012
Primary Link Archived Link
Processing trauma: the factory metaphor | Hawkins
Primary Link Archived Link
Surviving torture: understanding the nature and purpose of torture | Christian Peacemaker Teams
Archived Link
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patient handout | Royal College Of Psychiatrists | 2005
Archived Link
Coping with trauma (workbook) | Good Thinking
Primary Link Archived Link

Information (Professional)

Understanding traumatic intrusions (OCTC Practical Guides) | Helen Kennerley | 2016
Primary Link Archived Link
Prolonged Exposure (PE) | Edna Foa
Primary Link
Narrative Exposure Therapy (NET) | Shauer, Neuner, Elpert
Primary Link

Presentations

PTSD as a shame disorder | Judith Herman | 2014
Archived Link
A trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy case conceptualization: from assessment to termination | Alison Hendricks
Archived Link
Using exposure to treat PTSD: why, when, and how? | Fyvie
Archived Link
Introduction to traumatic stress | Kitchiner & Roberts
Archived Link
Using compassionate imagery in shame based flashbacks in PTSD | Deborah Lee | 2009
Primary Link
Dissociation and PTSD | Fiona Kennedy | 2010
Archived Link
Beyond reliving in PTSD treatment: advanced skills for overcoming common obstacles in memory work | Hannah Murray, Sharif El-Leithy
Archived Link
Cognitive therapy for PTSD | Nick Grey | 2016
Primary Link Archived Link
Dissociative phenomena in the everyday lives of trauma survivors | Janina Fischer | 2001
Archived Link
Modulation, mindfulness, and movement in the treatment of trauma-related depression (window of tolerance) | Pat Ogden | 2009
Archived Link

Treatment Guide

CBT-3M (Meanings, Memories and Management) - A trauma- based cognitive therapy protocol for young children aged 3-8 years | Based on the treatment developed by Smith, Yule, Perrin, & Clark (2006)
Primary Link Archived Link
Trauma focused CBT for chronic whiplash
Primary Link
Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders (2014) | Katzman et al | 2014
Primary Link Archived Link
Guideline for the treatment and planning of services for complex post-traumatic stress disorder in adults | UKPTS: McFetridge, Hauenstein Swan, Here, Karatzias, Greenberg, Kitchiner, Morley | 2017
Archived Link
Guidelines for the Evaluation and Treatment of Dissociative Symptoms in Children and Adolescents | International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (ISST-D) | 2003
Primary Link Archived Link
Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults | International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (ISST-D) | 2011
Primary Link Archived Link
Clinical practice guideline for the treatment of PTSD | American Psychological Association (APA) | 2017
Primary Link Archived Link
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) | National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines | 2018
Primary Link Archived Link
Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) Veteran/Military Version | Patricia Resick, Candice Monson, Kathleen Chard | 2006
Primary Link

Video

Absolutely not: an other thoughts you might have about mental health support (Animation) | UK Trauma Council | 2023
Primary Link
Coping with scary and distressing memories (Animation) | UK Trauma Council | 2023
Primary Link
What is trauma-focused CBT? (Animation) | UK Trauma Council | 2023
Primary Link
What is post-traumatic stress disorder? (Animation) | UK Trauma Council | 2023
Primary Link

What Is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?

Symptoms of PTSD

The DSM criteria for PTSD require that an individual has experienced a traumatic event and include symptoms in four categories:

re-experiencing memories of the trauma
heightened anxiety and hypervigilance
avoidance of reminders of the trauma
negative beliefs or feelings

People who develop complex PTSD have typically experienced prolonged and repeated trauma and may experience symptoms in addition to PTSD including:

dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization or derealization
difficulty managing emotions
loss of the sense of self
finding relationships very difficult

Incidence, Prevalence, and Predictors of PTSD

Depending upon the type of trauma experienced, approximately 10% to 30% of trauma survivors will develop PTSD (Santiago et al., 2013). Some of the strongest predictors of whether an individual will develop PTSD is how severe they perceived the trauma to be, and levels of social support post-trauma (Brewin, Andrews & Valentine, 2000).

Psychological Models and Theory of PTSD

One of the most influential models of PTSD is the cognitive model published by Anke Ehlers and David Clark in 2000. They propose that distress in PTSD is maintained by:

A disturbance of autobiographical memory characterized by poor elaboration and contextualization, strong associative memory, and strong perceptual priming. (The ‘unprocessed’ qualities of trauma memories makes them particularly intrusive.)
Excessively negative appraisals of the trauma and events surrounding it. (The thoughts and beliefs that survivors of trauma hold about themselves, others, and the world may be inaccurate or counterproductive.)
Problematic behavioral and cognitive strategies. (The avoidance and safety behaviors which people with PTSD engage in can act to perpetuate distress in PTSD.)

Other theories of particular relevance to PTSD include:

Emotional processing theory (Foa & Kozak, 1986) which proposes that emotions are information structures in memory (i.e., fear is associated with a ‘fear structure’). Changes in a structure require the integration of information that is incompatible with some elements of the fear structure.
The dual-processing model of memory in PTSD (Brewin, Dalgleish, & Joseph, 1996) which helps to explain some of the important and unusual properties of memory in PTSD such as ‘nowness’ and sensory vividness.

Evidence-Based Psychological Approaches for Working with PTSD

A variety of different therapeutic approaches have demonstrated effectiveness in the treatment of PTSD. A common factor in all of these approaches is that they are trauma-focused: at least some of the work in therapy addresses what happened to the patient. Evidence-based treatments for PTSD include:

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) / trauma-focused CBT
cognitive processing therapy (CPT)
eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)
narrative exposure therapy (NET)
prolonged exposure therapy (PE)

Resources for Working with PTSD

Psychology Tools has an extensive library of therapy resources devoted to the effective treatment of PTSD. Many patients report finding the Psychology Tools for Overcoming PTSD Audio Collection helpful in teaching a set of skills that can help them to feel more stable and to approach subsequent phases of trauma treatment. There are also a range of information handouts, exercises, and worksheets for working with PTSD. Psychology Tools resources available for working therapeutically with PTSD may include:

psychological models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
information handouts for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
exercises for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
CBT worksheets for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
self-help programs for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

References

Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.
Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670.
Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. BehaviourResearch and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.
Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 20–35.
Santiago, P. N., Ursano, R. J., Gray, C. L., Pynoos, R. S., Spiegel, D., Lewis-Fernandez, R., … & Fullerton, C. S. (2013). A systematic review of PTSD prevalence and trajectories in DSM-5 defined trauma exposed populations: Intentional and non-intentional traumatic events. PloS one, 8(4), e59236. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059236

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD)

.st0{fill:none;stroke:#000;stroke-width:2;stroke-linecap:round;stroke-linejoin:round;stroke-miterlimit:10} Filter

.st0{fill:none;stroke:#000;stroke-width:2;stroke-linecap:round;stroke-linejoin:round;stroke-miterlimit:10} Filter

Search

Language

Resource type

Problem

Therapy tool

Links to external resources

Assessment

Resources related to the assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Screening, diagnostic, and outcome-measurement tools for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Guides and workbooks

Information Handouts

Information (Professional)

Presentations

Treatment Guide

Video

Recommended Reading

Other papers

Complex PTSD

Complex PTSD

What Is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder?

Symptoms of PTSD

Incidence, Prevalence, and Predictors of PTSD

Psychological Models and Theory of PTSD

Evidence-Based Psychological Approaches for Working with PTSD

Resources for Working with PTSD

References

Filter

Filter